The main characters of this history, non fiction story are ,. The book has been awarded with , and many others. Get free access to the library by create an account, fast download and ads free. We cannot guarantee that every book is in the library. Then I saw my own tepee, and inside I saw my mother and my father bending over a sick boy that was myself. And as I entered the tepee, some one was saying: "The boy is coming to; you had better give him some water.
Neihardt page 37 4 The Bison Hunt When I got back to my father and mother and was sitting up there in our tepee, my face was still all puffed and my legs and arms were badly swollen; but I felt good all over and wanted to get right up and run around. My parents would not let me.
They told me I had been sick twelve days, lying like dead all the while, and that Whirlwind Chaser, who was Standing Bear's uncle and a medicine man, had brought me back to life.
I knew it was the Grandfathers in the Flaming Rainbow Tepee who had cured me; but I felt afraid to say so. My father gave Whirlwind Chaser the best horse he had for making me well, and many people came to look at Un me, and there was much talk about the great power of Whirlwind Chaser who had made me well all at once when I was almost the same as dead.
Also, as I lay there thinking of my vision, I could ty see it all again and feel the meaning with a part of me like a strange power glowing in my body; but when the part of me that talks would try to make words for the meaning, it would be of like fog and get away from me. I am sure now that I was then too young to understand it all, Ne page 38 br and that I only felt it. It was the pictures I remembered and the words that went with them; for as nothing I have ever seen with my eyes was so clear and bright as what my vision showed me; ka and no words that I have ever heard with my ears were like the words I heard.
I did not have to remember these things; they have remembered themselves all these years. It was as I grew older that the meanings came clearer and clearer out of the pictures and the words; and even Pr now I know that more was shown to me than I can tell.
He sat down and looked at me a long s time in a strange way, and then he said to my father: "Your boy there is sitting in a sacred manner. I do not know what it is, but there is something special for him to do, for just as I came in I could see a power like a light all through his body. For a long while after that, whenever I saw Whirlwind Chaser coming, I would run away and hide for fear he might see into me and tell.
The next morning all the swelling had left my face and legs and arms, and I felt well as ever; but everything around me seemed strange and as though it were far away. Neihardt people. They were almost like strangers. I would be out alone away from the village and the other boys, and I would look around to the four quarters, thinking of my vision and wishing I could get back there again.
I would go home to eat, but I could not make myself eat much; and my page 39 father and mother thought that I was sick yet; but I was not. I was only homesick for the place where I had been. I could not tell what I had seen and heard even to my mother's father, Refuse-To-Go, although before that I used to think that I could tell him anything, for he liked everything a boy could like, and there was no end to the wonderful things he would tell.
It was he who Un made the first bow I ever had, and he always had more arrows ready for me when I had lost all those that he had given me. I loved my father, but Refuse-To-Go was different, and I used to ive be with him a great deal. This was the first thing I could not tell him.
One day during this time I was out with the bow and arrows my Grandfather had made for rsi me, and as I walked along thinking of my vision, suddenly I felt queer, and for a little while it seemed that the bow and arrows were those that the First Grandfather in the Flaming Rainbow ty Tepee had given me. Then they were only those that Refuse-To-Go had made, and I felt foolish and tried to make myself think it was all only a dream anyway.
So I thought I would of forget about it and shoot something. There was a bush and a little bird sitting in it; but just as I was going to shoot, I felt queer again, and remembered that I was to be like a relative with the Ne birds. So I did not shoot. Then I went on down toward a creek, feeling foolish because I had let the little bird go, and when I saw a green frog sitting there, I just shot him right away.
But br when I picked him up by the legs, I thought: "Now I have killed him," and it made me want to cry. I was four years older than he was. I am Minneconjou, but our mothers Pr es page 40 s were cousins and we used to play together when our bands were camping in one place. It was at the headwaters of the Greasy Grass Little Bighorn.
Everybody in the village was well, and so was Black Elk. The next thing I heard was that he was dying and just breathing a little. Everybody was excited over it, and they sent for medicine to other bands, but nobody knew what the sickness was. I saw him during this time. He looked dead, and everybody was talking about him. Then he was well all at once, and everybody wondered and talked about it. I remember too how it was after he got up.
Right after that we moved camp to the mouth of Willow Creek, south about two days, and while the village was moving, I rode back to where the smaller boys were in the rear, for I wanted to see my young friend. Neihardt younger brother! You got well after all! Yes, I am not sick at all now! He was more like an old man. And I can remember his father talking to my father in our tepee while we were eating one evening. He said something like this: "Since my boy was sick, he is not the same boy.
He has queer ways and he does not like to be at home. I feel sorry about the way he is, poor boy! Black Elk Continues: Yes, we went on a big hunt after we had been at Willow Creek awhile, and it helped me to quit thinking about my vision all the time. One morning the crier came around the circle of the village calling out that we were going to break camp. The advisers were in the council tepee, and he cried to them: "The advisers, Un come ive page 41 forth to the center and bring your fires along.
And all the people began taking down their tepees, and packing them on pony drags. Your children, you must take care of them! Then we broke camp and started in formation, the four advisers first, a crier behind them, the chiefs next, and then the people with the loaded pony drags in a long line, and the herd of br ponies following.
I was riding near the rear with some of the smaller boys, and when the as people were going up a long hill, I looked ahead and it made me feel queer again for a little while, because I remembered the nation walking in a sacred manner on the red road in my ka vision.
But this was different, and I forgot about it soon, for something exciting was going to happen, and even the ponies seemed to know. Pr After we had been traveling awhile, we came to a place where there were many turnips growing, and the crier said: "Take off your loads and let your horses rest. Take your sticks and es dig turnips for yourselves.
Then the crier shouted: "Put on your loads! When the sun was high, the advisers found a place to camp where there was wood and also water; and while the women were cooking all around the circle I heard people saying that the scouts were returning, and over the top of a hill I saw three horsebacks coming. They rode to the council tepee in the middle page 42 of the village and all the people were going there to hear. Neihardt that I could look in between the legs of the men.
The crier came out of the council tepee and said, speaking to the people for the scouts: "I have protected you; in return you shall give me many gifts. Then he lit the pipe, offered it to the four quarters, to the Spirit above and to Mother Earth, and passing it to the scouts he said: "The nation has depended upon you. Whatever you have seen, maybe it is for the good of the people you have seen. Then the adviser said: "At what place have you stood and seen the good?
Report it to me and I will be glad. We went and reached the top of a hill and there we saw a small herd of bison. Un The adviser said: "Maybe on the other side of that you have seen the good. Report it. Tell me all that you have seen out there. Make ready, make of page 43 Ne haste; your horses make ready! We shall go forth with arrows. Plenty of meat we shall make! The soldier band went first, riding twenty ka abreast, and anybody who dared go ahead of them would get knocked off his horse.
They kept order, and everybody had to obey. After them came the hunters, riding five abreast. The Pr people came up in the rear. Then the head man of the advisers went around picking out the best hunters with the fastest horses, and to these he said: "Good young warriors, my relatives, es your work I know is good.
What you do is good always; so to-day you shall feed the helpless. Perhaps there are some old and feeble people without sons, or some who have little children s and no man. You shall help these, and whatever you kill shall be theirs. Then when we had come near to where the bison were, the hunters circled around them, and the cry went up, as in a battle, " Hoka hey! Then there was a great dust and everybody shouted and all the hunters went in to kill--every man for himself.
They were all nearly naked, with their quivers full of arrows hanging on their left sides, and they would ride right up to a bison and shoot him behind the left shoulder. Some of the arrows would go in up to the feathers and sometimes those that struck no bones went right straight through. Everybody was very happy. I was thirteen years old and supposed to be a man, so I made up my mind I'd get a yearling. One of them went down a page 44 draw and I raced after him on my pony. My first shot did not seem to hurt him at all; but my pony kept right after him, and the second arrow went in half way.
I think I hit his heart, for he began to wobble as he ran and blood came out of his nose. Hunters cried " Yuhoo! When he went down, I got off my Un horse and began butchering him myself, and I was very happy. All over the flat, as far as I could see, there were men butchering bison now, and the women and the old men who could ive not hunt were coming up to help.
And all the women were making the tremolo of joy for what the warriors had given them. That was in the Moon of Red Cherries July.
It was a great rsi killing. So we little boys of scouted around and watched the hunters; and when we would see a bunch of bison coming, we would yell "Yuhoo" like the others, but nobody noticed us. Ne When the butchering was all over, they hung the meat across the horses' backs and fastened it with strips of fresh bison hide.
On the way back to the village all the hunting horses were br loaded, and we little boys who could not wait for the feast helped ourselves to all the raw liver we wanted. Nobody got cross when we did this. When the hunters got home they threw their meat in piles on the leaves of trees. Pr Then the advisers all went back into the council tepee, and es page 45 s from all directions the people came bringing gifts of meat to them, and the advisers all cried " Hya-a-a-a! And when they had eaten all they could, the crier shouted to the people: "All come home!
It is more than I can eat! The women were all busy cutting the meat into strips and hanging it on the racks to dry. You could see red meat hanging everywhere. The people feasted all night long and danced and sang. Those were happy times. There was a war game that we little boys played after a big hunt. Neihardt from the village and built some grass tepees, playing we were enemies and this was our village.
We had an adviser, and when it got dark he would order us to go and steal some dried meat from the big people. He would hold a stick up to us and we had to bite off a piece of it. If we bit a big piece we had to get a big piece of meat, and if we bit a little piece, we did not have to get so much. Then we started for the big people's village, crawling on our bellies, and when we got back without getting caught, we would have a big feast and a dance and make kill talks, telling of our brave deeds like warriors.
Once, I remember, I had no brave deed to tell. I crawled up to a leaning tree beside a tepee and there was meat hanging on the limbs. I wanted a tongue I saw up there in the moonlight, so I climbed up. But just as I was about to reach it, the man in the tepee yelled " Ye-a-a! Un Then we used to have what we called a chapped breast dance.
Our adviser would look us over to see whose breast was burned ive page 46 rsi most from not having it covered with the robe we wore; and the boy chosen would lead the ty dance while we all sang like this: of "I have a chapped breast. My breast is red. Ne My breast is yellow. Our adviser would put dry sunflower seeds on our wrists. They hurt and as made sores, but if we knocked them off or cried Owh!
Neihardt page 47 5 At the Soldiers' Town After all the meat was dried, the six bands 1 of our nation that had come together about the time when the great vision came to me, broke camp at the mouth of Willow Creek and scattered in all directions. A small part of our band, the Ogalalas, started south for the Soldiers' Town on Smoky Earth River the White , for some of our relatives were there and we wanted to see them and have a feast of aguiapi and paezhuta sapa with chahumpi ska in it.
There were not many boys in our small band, and we all played ive together. I had quit thinking about my vision. The queer feeling had left me and I was not bashful any more; but whenever a thunder storm was coming I felt happy, as though somebody were coming to visit me. When we Ne page 48 br got there, the plums were turning red, but they were not quite ripe yet.
My grandfather went out and got some big red ones and they tasted good. When we got to War Bonnet Creek, as which is not very far from the Soldiers' Town, my aunt and other relatives were there waiting ka for us with bread and coffee, and we had a big feast.
I was sick all that night, and the next day my parents made me ride on a pony drag, because they were afraid I would surely die this time. But I think it was only too much bread and coffee, and maybe the plums. We camped Pr again at Hips Hill, and by this time most of our people from the Soldiers' Town were among es us.
The next day about twenty tepees of us went on, and the rest stayed back. We camped with our relatives by White Butte near the Soldiers' Town and stayed there all winter, and we had a s good time sliding down hill with sleds made out of bison jaws and ribs tied together with rawhide. I was ten years old that winter, and that was the first time I ever saw a Wasichu.
At first I thought they all looked sick, and I was afraid they might just begin to fight us any time, but I got used to them. That winter one of our boys climbed the flagpole and chopped it off near the top. This almost made bad trouble, for the soldiers surrounded us with their guns; but Red Cloud, who was living there, stood right in the middle without a weapon and made speeches to the Wasichus and to us.
Neihardt was foolish for men to want to shoot grown people because their little boys did foolish things in play; and he asked them if they ever did foolish things for fun when they were boys. So nothing happened after all. Red Cloud was a great chief, and he was an Ogalala.
But at this time he was through with fighting. After the treaty he made page 49 with the Wasichus five years before he never fought again, and he was living with his band, the Bad Faces, at the Soldiers' Town. Crazy Horse was an Ogalala too, and I think he was the greatest chief of all.
We followed down Horse-Head-Cutting Creek to ive its mouth, and while we were camped there one day I was away from the village alone, when I heard a spotted eagle whistle. I looked up and there he was, hovering over me. The queer feeling came back very strong, and for a little while it seemed that I was in the world of my rsi vision again. From there we moved on to Buffalo Gap at the foot of the Hills, and my father and I went ty out alone to look for deer.
We climbed up through the timber to the top of a big hill, and it was of hard for my father, who was lame from the wound he got in the Battle of the Hundred Slain. When we were on top, my father looked down and said: "There are some yonder.
You stay Ne here, and I will go around them. They did as come to us, and my father got two of them. While we were butchering and I was eating some liver, I felt sorry that we had killed these ka animals and thought that we ought to do something in return. So I said: "Father, should we not offer one of these to the wild things? Then he placed Pr one of the deer with its head to the east, and, facing the west, he raised his hand and cried, es page 50 s " Hey-hey" four times and prayed like this: "Grandfather, the Great Spirit, behold me!
To all the wild things that eat flesh, this I have offered that my people may live and the children grow up with plenty. We cut plenty of tepee poles up along the creeks that came down the east side of the Black Hills, and there was all we wanted to eat, for the Hills were like a big food pack for our people. Iron Bull, a little boy my age, and I had great fun fishing.
We always made an offering of bait to the fish, saying: "You who are down in the water with wings of red, I offer this to you; so come hither. Neihardt did not do this, we were sure the others would know and stay away. If we caught a little fish, we would kiss it and throw it back, so that it would not go and frighten the bigger fish.
I don't know whether all this helped or not, but we always got plenty of fish, and our parents were proud of us. We tried to catch as many as we could so that people would think much of us. There was a man by the name of Watanye who was good at spearing fish, and he had very sore lips so that he did not dare to laugh.
They were cracked all around his mouth. People would try to make him laugh, but he would just walk away from them. One day he said to me: "Younger brother, I will show you how to spear fish. I missed and went over head-first into the cold pool. When I scrambled out, Watanye was all doubled up, hugging his Un belly, and going ive page 51 rsi "hunh, hunh, hunh! He ran away as fast as he could, and for a long while after that, whenever he saw me coming, he would turn and run, so that he ty would not have to laugh again.
Once I hid in a bush until he came along, just to see him run when I jumped out. Also, he liked to tell me stories, mostly funny Ne ones when he did not have sore lips.
I still remember one story he told me about a young Lakota called High Horse, and what a hard time he had getting the girl he wanted. Watanye br said the story happened just as he told it, and maybe it did. If it did not, it could have, just as well as not. I will tell that story now. Neihardt page 52 6 High Horse's Courting You know, in the old days, it was not so very easy to get a girl when you wanted to be married.
Sometimes it was hard work for a young man and he had to stand a great deal. Say I am a young man and I have seen a young girl who looks so beautiful to me that I feel all sick when I think about her. I can not just go and tell her about it and then get married if she is willing.
I have to be a very sneaky fellow to talk to her at all, and after I have managed to talk to her, that is only the beginning.
Probably for a long time I have been feeling sick about a certain girl because I love her so Un much, but she will not even look at me, and her parents keep a good watch over her. But I keep feeling worse and worse all the time; so maybe I sneak up to her tepee in the dark and ive wait until she comes out.
Maybe I just wait there all night and don't get any sleep at all and she does not come out. Then I feel sicker than ever about her. If ty she likes me too, I can tell that from the way she acts, for she is very bashful and maybe will not say a word or even look at me the first time. So I let her go, and then maybe I sneak of around until I can see her father alone, and I tell him how many horses I can give him for his beautiful girl, and by now I am feeling so Ne page 53 br sick that maybe I would give him all the horses in the world if I had them.
The girl was very shy, and her parents thought a great deal of her because they were not young any more and this was the only child they had. Pr So they watched her all day long, and they fixed it so that she would be safe at night too when es they were asleep.
They thought so much of her that they had made a rawhide bed for her to sleep in, and after they knew that High Horse was sneaking around after her, they took s rawhide thongs and tied the girl in bed at night so that nobody could steal her when they were asleep, for they were not sure but that their girl might really want to be stolen.
Well, after High Horse had been sneaking around a good while and hiding and waiting for the girl and getting sicker all the time, he finally caught her alone and made her talk to him.
Then he found out that she liked him maybe a little. Of course this did not make him feel well. It made him sicker than ever, but now he felt as brave as a bison bull, and so he went right to her father and said he loved the girl so much that he would give two good horses for her--one of them young and the other one not so very old.
But the old man just waved his hand, meaning for High Horse to go away and quit talking foolishness like that. Neihardt High Horse was feeling sicker than ever about it; but there was another young fellow who said he would loan High Horse two ponies and when he got some more horses, why, he could just give them back for the ones he had borrowed.
But the old man just waved his hand and would not say anything. So High Horse sneaked around until he could talk to the girl again, and he asked her to run away with him. He told her he thought he would just fall over and die if she did not.
But she said she would not do that; she wanted to be bought like a fine woman. You see she thought a Un great deal of herself too.
That made High Horse feel so very sick that he could not eat a bite, and he went around ive with his head hanging down as though he might just fall down and die any time. Red Deer was another young fellow, and he and High Horse were great comrades, always rsi doing things together.
Red Deer saw how High Horse was acting, and he said: "Cousin, what is the matter? Are you sick in the belly? You look as though you were going to die. She will not run away with Ne you; her old man will not take four horses; and four horses are all you can get. You must steal her and run away with her. Then afterwhile you can come back and the old man cannot do br anything because she will be your woman.
Probably she wants you to steal her anyway. Then High Horse s crawled under the tepee with a knife. He had to cut the rawhide thongs first, and then Red Deer, who was pulling up the stakes around that side of the tepee, was going to help drag the girl outside and gag her.
After that, High Horse could put her across his pony in front of him and hurry out of there and be happy all the rest of his life. When High Horse had crawled inside, he felt so nervous that he could hear his heart drumming, and it seemed so loud he felt sure it would 'waken the old folks. But it did not, and afterwhile he began cutting the thongs.
Every time he cut one it made a pop and nearly scared him to death. But he was getting along all right and all the thongs were cut down as far as the girl's thighs, when he became so nervous that his knife slipped and stuck the girl.
She gave a big, loud yell. Neihardt like antelope. The old man and some other people chased the young men but they got away in the dark and nobody knew who it was.
Well, if you ever wanted a beautiful girl you will know how sick High Horse was now. It was very bad the way he felt, and it looked as though he would starve even if he did not drop over dead sometime. Red Deer kept thinking about this, and after a few days he went to High Horse and said: "Cousin, take courage! I have another plan, and I am sure, if you are man enough, we can steal her this time. Then ive he painted High Horse solid white all over, and after that he painted black stripes all over the white and put black rings around High Horse's eyes.
High Horse looked terrible. He looked so rsi terrible that when Red Deer was through painting and took a good look at what he had done, he said it scared even him a little. High Horse crawled in with his knife, as before, and Red Deer waited outside, Ne ready to drag the girl out and gag her when High Horse had all the thongs cut.
High Horse crept up by the girl's bed and began cutting at the thongs. But he kept thinking, br "If they see me they will shoot me because I look so terrible. So High Horse worked very as slowly and carefully. There is somebody in this tepee! He said: "Of course there is somebody in this tepee. Go to sleep Pr and don't bother me. Now, you see, he had not been sleeping very well for a long time because he was so s sick about the girl.
And while he was lying there waiting for the old woman to snore, he just forgot everything, even how beautiful page 57 the girl was. Red Deer who was lying outside ready to do his part, wondered and wondered what had happened in there, but he did not dare call out to High Horse.
Afterwhile the day began to break and Red Deer had to leave with the two ponies he had staked there for his comrade and girl, or somebody would see him. Neihardt So he left. Now when it was getting light in the tepee, the girl awoke and the first thing she saw was a terrible animal, all white with black stripes on it, lying asleep beside her bed. So she screamed, and then the old woman screamed and the old man yelled. High Horse jumped up, scared almost to death, and he nearly knocked the tepee down getting out of there.
People were coming running from all over the village with guns and bows and axes, and everybody was yelling. By now High Horse was running so fast that he hardly touched the ground at all, and he looked so terrible that the people fled from him and let him run. Some braves wanted to shoot at him, but the others said he might be some sacred being and it would bring bad trouble to kill him.
High Horse made for the river that was near, and in among the brush he found a hollow tree Un and dived into it. Afterwhile some braves came there and he could hear them saying that it was some bad spirit that had come out of the water and gone back in again.
So they did, while High Horse was hiding in his hollow tree. Now Red Deer had been watching all this from his own tepee and trying to look as though rsi he were as much surprised and scared as all the others. So when the camp moved, he sneaked ty page 58 of back to where he had seen his comrade disappear.
When he was down there in the brush, he Ne called, and High Horse answered, because he knew his friend's voice. They washed off the paint from High Horse and sat down on the river bank to talk about their troubles. He said he was going to go on the war-path all by himself. After several days they came to a Crow camp just about sundown, and when it was dark they Pr sneaked up to where the Crow horses were grazing, killed the horse guard, who was not es thinking about enemies because he thought all the Lakotas were far away, and drove off about a hundred horses.
Red Deer and High Horse fled with their herd three days and nights before they reached the village of their people. Then they drove the whole herd right into the village and up in front of the girl's tepee. The old man was there, and High Horse called out to him and asked if he thought maybe that would be enough horses for his girl.
The old man did not wave him away that time. It was not the horses that he wanted. What he wanted was a son who was a real man and good for something. So High Horse got his girl after all, and I think he deserved her. Neihardt page 59 7 Wasichus in the Hills It was the next summer, when I was 11 years old , that the first sign of a new trouble came to us.
That evening just before sunset, a big thunder cloud came up from the west, and just before the wind struck, there were clouds of split-tail swallows flying all around above us. It was like a part of my vision, and it made me feel queer.
The boys tried to hit the swallows with stones and it hurt me to see them doing this, but I could not tell them. I got a stone and acted as Un though I were going to throw, but I did not. The swallows seemed holy. Nobody hit one, and when I thought about this I knew that of course they could not.
They say he rsi was the first man who made a sacred ornament for our great chief, Crazy Horse. While they were heating the stones for the sweat tepee, some boys asked me to go with them to shoot ty squirrels.
We went out, and when I was about to shoot at one, I felt very uneasy all at once. So I sat down, feeling queer, and wondered about it. While I sat there I heard a voice that said: of "Go at once!
Go home! When we got back, everybody was excited, breaking camp, catching the ponies and loading the Ne drags; and I heard br page 60 as that while Chips was in the sweat tepee a voice had told him that the band must flee at once ka because something was going to happen there.
It was nearly sundown when we started, and we fled all that night on the back trail toward Pr Spring Creek, then down that creek to the south fork of the Good River. I rode most of the night in a pony drag because I got too sleepy to stay on a horse. We camped at Good River in es the morning, but we stayed only long enough to eat.
Although Neihardt was a poet rather than an anthropologist, his collaboration with Black Elk is an example, more generally, of the ethnographic scenario of collaborative life writing, in which the author comes from Western culture, while the native subject of the book comes from a non-Western culture.
To his credit, Neihardt preserved or simulated many aspects of Lakota culture in the narrative. Nevertheless, when the circumstances governing the book's production are understood, the result can no longer be viewed as a transparent representation of Indian subjectivity. In the early s, Neihardt was seeking material about the Ghost Dance religion for The Song of the Messiah, the last installment in his cycle of epic poems about the West.
As a participant in the Ghost Dance religion and witness to the massacre at Wounded Knee, Black Elk was an invaluable source. Although it is impossible to know the aims of each collaborator, it is clear in retrospect that they were working somewhat at cross purposes.
In fact, the aftermath of the collaboration suggests that Black Elk, though not coerced to participate, may have felt that he was in some sense misrepresented.
Neihardt deliberately portrayed Black Elk as an unreconstructed traditionalist, when in fact he had converted to Roman Catholicism, been baptized Nicholas Black Elk, and become a valued catechist who disseminated Christian doctrine among his people.
This revelation shocks many readers of Black Elk Speaks largely because Neihardt so carefully excluded any evidence of Black Elk's acculturation. When the book became known on the reservation, missionaries there felt betrayed by Black Elk.
His response was to "speak" again, issuing a document in which he reaffirmed his faith in Christianity. This document published in DeMallie furnishes a salutary supplement to the life story.
Collaborative autobiography is inherently a ventriloquistic genre--the simulation of one person's voice by another--and Black Elk Speaks is more ventriloquistic than most readers have understood.
In interviews in the s, Neihardt acknowledged that several passages, including the opening and closing ones, had no source in the interviews.
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